TGFB1 and cancer: 2010). Moreover, TGF-β signaling can induce the production of tumor stroma content, expression of ECM proteins and fibroblast activation (Lan et al., 2018), which further impede antitumor immunity by forming a physical barrier for the infiltration of immune cells (Huang et al., 2020). Furthermore, inhibition of TGF-β signaling has been evaluated in multiple clinical trials to improve the therapeutic effect of cancer immunotherapies (Batlle & Massague, 2019; Derynck et al., 2021).