TNF and atherosclerosis: In the context of atherosclerosis, loss of fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR) in ECs, which occurs in response to the inflammatory cytokines IL-1β, TNF-α, and IFN-γ found in the atherosclerotic plaque, activates TGF-β signaling, leading to a loss of endothelial phenotype and gain of mesenchymal phenotype.