TNF and acute pancreatitis: Activation of pancreatic proteases and dysfunction of pancreatic microcirculation in acute pancreatitis stimulate granulocytes, macrophages, and vascular endothelial cells to release IL-6, TNF-α, and other cytokines that participate in the inflammatory response and immunoregulation (Pooran et al., 2003; Sternby et al., 2021).