Lastly, EVs secreted from hypoxic head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) cells carry TGF-β1 as cargo that promotes CAF differentiation in co-culture experiments (Table 1); the EVs also carry miR-192 and miR-215, which downregulate the caveolar protein caveolin-1, an established negative regulator of TGF-β signaling (Zhu et al., 2021). Here, CAV1 is linked to head and neck squamous cell carcinoma.