Preclinical studies in transgenic MSA mice treated with the TLR4 agonist monophosphoryl lipid A revealed an increased microglial α-synuclein uptake, significant motor improvement, rescue of nigral dopaminergic and striatal neurons, and region-specific reduction of the density of GCI in the absence of a marked systemic inflammatory response [169]. Here, TLR4 is linked to multiple system atrophy.