TNF and necrotizing enterocolitis: Toll-like receptor (TLR) 4 activation (Jilling et al., 2006), TNF-α (also known as TNF) stimulation (Halpern et al., 2006), NF-kB signaling (De Plaen et al., 2007), increased platelet-activating factor levels (Caplan et al., 1997; Frost et al., 2008) and decreased EGF (Dvorak et al., 2002) have been identified as key players in NEC pathogenesis.