Both dsDNA and BAFF are markers of SLE disease activity.19,20 To determine whether the SNS was impaired in MRL/lpr mice, we measured the expression of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) and GFAP, an astrocyte marker, in the locus ceruleus, the major source of noradrenaline.21 Expression of TH was significantly lower in MRL/lpr mice than in MRL/MPJ mice, whereas expression of GFAP was significantly higher (Fig. 1A). Here, GFAP is linked to systemic lupus erythematosus.