TNF and Alzheimer disease: Elevation in pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin (IL)-6, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, IL-1β, transforming growth factor (TGF)-β, IL-12, and IL-18, in the peripheral blood of AD patients compared to control subjects was also reported by Swardfager et al. in a meta-analysis comprising 44 studies [114].