VDR and cancer: In advanced human disease (a likely marker of impaired cancer cell VDR signalling, nuclear VDR levels being inversely related to tumour progression (Brozyna et al., 2011; Hutchinson et al., 2018; Kivineva et al., 1998; Kure et al., 2009; Matusiak et al., 2005; Menezes et al., 2008; Salehin et al., 2012), a number of uncontrolled studies of high‐dose vitamin D3 have shown modest or no measurable improvement in advanced prostate, pancreatic and hepatic cancer (Beer, Lemmon, et al., 2003; Dalhoff et al., 2003; Evans et al., 2002; Liu et al., 2002; Schwartz et al., 2005).