Direct clinical applications have emerged from the research on the TME as for examples prognostic applications based on tumor infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) quantification and therapeutic (and theragnostic) applications with the immune checkpoint inhibitory anti-cancer immunotherapies as those targeting CTLA-4 and PD-1/PD-L1 axes in various solid cancers (5, 6). Here, CTLA4 is linked to neoplasm.