TNF and neoplasm: Th1 cytokines, such as IL‐1β, IL‐2, IL‐12, IL‐18, TNFα, and IFNγ, are associated with proinflammation, while Th2 cytokines, such as IL‐4, IL‐5, and TGFβ, play a suppressive role in the tumour immune microenvironment (Grivennikov et al., 2010; Zhao et al., 2021).