TNF and systemic lupus erythematosus: Some in vitro studies have shown that CQ/HCQ inhibit the production of tumor necrosis factors α (TNF-α), interleukin (IL)-1β, and IL-6 in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated human monocytes/macrophages and reduce the levels of proinflammatory cytokines in the serum of patients with SLE (9, 10).