TNF and metabolic disease: Chronic low-grade inflammation in VAT involves an unhealthy expansion of adipocyte size (hypertrophy) (Jais and Brüning, 2017), local hypoxia, adipocyte death, mechanical stress, which leads to an excessive release of fatty acids and pro-inflammatory adipokines, such as interleukin (IL)-6 and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), which are associated with metabolic disorders, including insulin resistance, hepatic steatosis, and cardiovascular diseases (Chouchani and Kajimura, 2019; Han et al., 2020; Kawai et al., 2021).