Associations between NTHi and IL-1β are not limited to asthma (50, 51, 197), with higher levels of IL-1β measured in BAL samples from NTHi+ COPD patients compared to NTHi- COPD patients (229), as well as increased neutrophils in the airways of COPD patients colonized with H. influenzae (230). Here, IL1B is linked to asthma.