NFKB1 and inflammatory response: IPA induced the expression of tight junction proteins, such as ZO-1 and occludin, and maintained intestinal epithelium homeostasis, leading to a reduction in plasma endotoxin levels. IPA inhibited NF-κB signaling and reduced the levels of proinflammatory cytokines, such as TNFα, IL-1β, and IL-6, in response to endotoxin in macrophages to repress hepatic inflammation and liver injury