Indeed, we observed that SPP1+ macrophages, which have been reported in colon cancer and closely interact with cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs)26, were more infiltrated in S100P-SPP1 + iCCApps, while CCL18+ macrophages, which were abundant in advanced hepatocellular carcinoma27, were mostly infiltrated in S100P + SPP1− iCCAphl (Fig. 4c, d). Here, S100P is linked to cancer.