TNF and infection: In the early phase of sepsis, inflammatory cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and interleukin-6 (IL-6) are manufactured from infection-triggered immune cells (e.g., macrophages) and stromal cells (e.g., epithelial cells, endothelial cells, and fibroblasts) through activation of toll-like receptor (TLR) and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), and then extricated into systemic circulation [3,4].