Five of the 19 tested cytokines and chemokines showed increased levels in both acute and chronic CCM: IL-1β, TNF, CXCL1/KC/GRO, CXCL2/MIP-2 and CCL2/MCP-1; these were consistent with the RNA-seq data. This evidence concerns the gene CXCL2 and cerebral cavernous malformation.