ACTA1 and calcification: Consistent with that observed in the mouse models of VD3-induced acute vascular calcification, treatment with AB-EVs, but not YB-EVs, resulted in significantly decreased mRNA levels of Sm22α and αSma (Fig. 4k), as well as profoundly increased calcium deposition lesion areas (Fig. 4l–n), vascular calcium content (Fig. 4o), RUNX2 protein expression (Fig. 4p, q), and Alpl gene expression (Fig. 4r) in abdominal aortas of the mice with adenine-induced chronic vascular calcification, which further demonstrate the positive role of AB-EVs on vascular calcification.