TiO2 NPs exposure impaired glucose homeostasis and induced insulin resistance, either directly by influencing hepatic glucose metabolism and intestinal glucose absorption, interfering with insulin signaling pathway (Gurevitch et al., 2012; Richter et al., 2018), and/or indirectly by increasing ROS, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, and activation inflammatory pathways (Hu et al., 2015, 2016, 2018, 2020). Here, INS is linked to Insulin resistance.