TNF and Sepsis: Considering the various failures of clinical trials targeting hyper-inflammatory mediators (especially IL-1β and TNF-α) and the fact that most septic patients who survive the acute stage of hyper-immune and inflammatory responses are burdened by secondary infections, it is necessary to perform basic and translational studies to understand the long-term post-sepsis immune perturbations (26, 27, 45, 46).