TGFB1 and neoplasm: During HPV-associated cervical cancer progression, T helper 1 cytokines such as interferon-γ and interleukin (IL)-2 are downregulated, and T helper 2 cytokines such as TGF-β and IL-10 are upregulated; these cytokine changes produce a local immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME) that inhibits antitumor immune responses (42–44).