MAPK1 and cancer: The potent antiproliferative effects, productive tumour inhibition, and antimetastasis properties of carotenoids against various cancer cells are believed to be stimulated by a large array of intracellular pathways; these are believed to act by modulating the function of key regulators, including nuclear-factor NF-κB, PI3K/AKT, ERK, p38, and c-Jun, JNK, and MAPKs, as well as various other cellular signalling proteins and transcription factors [35].