Interestingly, non-invasive Gram-negative bacteria such as Escherichia coli, Enterobacter aerogenes and Klebsiella pneumonia, can also induce IL-1β production by Atg16L1-deficient BMMs, whereas infectious Salmonella typhimurium induces produced IL-1β but comparable to non-infectious Gram-negative bacteria, suggesting that the LPS-induced inflammation model is still distinct from true bacterial infection (Saitoh et al., 2008). Here, IL1B is linked to bacterial infectious disease.