TNF and renal fibrosis: At 16 weeks post-5/6Nx, uremia induced (i) gut barrier defect, causing gut translocation of FITC-dextran (MW 4.4 kD), LPS (MW > 5 kDa), and BG (MW > 0.5 kDa) (Figure 1F–H) into the systemic circulation and (ii) gut-derived uremic toxins (trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) and indoxyl sulfate (IS)) and renal fibrosis which possibly induced systemic inflammation (TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-10), liver damage (alanine transaminase (ALT)), and proteinuria (Figure 1I–O and Figure 2).