TNF and rheumatoid arthritis: In RA, an imbalance in PNS-SNS stimulation may lead to a defective release and binding of acetylcholine to the α7nAChR on splenic macrophages and fibroblast-like synoviocytes in the joints with a consequent uncontrolled release of proinflammatory cytokines (e.g., TNF, IL-1, and IL-6) and self-sustaining chronic inflammation of target organs (e.g., joint and bone damage and accelerated atherosclerosis) [2,111].