TNF and viral infectious disease: Other cytokines and chemokines, including CXCL-8 (IL-8), CXCL-10 (IP-10), TGF-β and TNF-α protein, and type I IFN (IFN-β) and type III IFN (IFN-λ1) mRNA were increased to a similar extent during viral infection and co-infections with either of the PA isolates and HRV16.