INS and Alzheimer disease: Interestingly, higher level of phosphorylated insulin receptor (p-Ser-IRS1) has been shown to be a consistent change in insulin signaling and a marker of insulin resistance in AD brains (Steen et al., 2005; Moloney et al., 2010; Bomfim et al., 2012; Talbot et al., 2012; Yarchoan et al., 2014).