INS and obesity due to melanocortin 4 receptor deficiency: Although discussion of these alternative mechanisms is beyond the scope of this review, we acknowledge that insulin-independent mechanisms — for example, lipid peroxidation and metabolism [213], fibroblast growth factor receptor-1 [214], creatine [215], leptin [216], inflammatory cytokines [217], and many others which space limitations do not permit us to discuss in any detail (Figure 4) — play a key role in the progression of obesity-associated cancers as well.