TNF and infection: The TLR4 signaling pathway can induce cytokine production, such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and type I interferon (IFN), B cell proliferation, and maturation of dendritic cells to activate infection defense mechanisms (Verstrepen et al., 2008; Watts et al., 2010; Kawasaki and Kawai, 2014).