TNF and benign prostatic hyperplasia: The increased production of pro-inflammatory cytokines including tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and interleukins (e.g., IL1-β) during inflammation contributes to tissue remodeling in BPH, which ultimately induces epithelial and stromal cell hyperproliferation, activation of fibrosis-promoting signaling, and malignant transformation [7,12,13,14].