The results show that HIF pathway activation using a HIF stabilising PHD inhibitor and/or an FIH inhibitor increased pyridinoline cross-links to a level comparable to that identified in IPF tissue, and that the increase in cross-links is associated with an increase in tissue stiffness comparable to the extremes of stiffness identified in IPF tissue together with a reduction in fibril diameter similar to those present in IPF lung tissue. Here, CASR is linked to idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis.