MAPK3 and cancer: It has also been shown to modulate the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines [20] and to produce anti-cancer effects, including its ability to promote the loss of cell viability, apoptosis, and autophagy through the modulation of phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase/serine/threonine kinase/mammalian Target of Rapamycin (PI3K/Akt/mTOR), Wnt/-catenin, and mitogen-activated protein kinases/extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (MAPK/ERK1/2) pathways [21].