Similarly, in DHLF-IPF cells, NEN inhibited the phosphorylation of Akt (S473), mTOR (S2448), S6 (S235/236) and 4E-BP1 (S65) and induced SQSTM1/p62 and LC3B-II accumulation identical to that observed in TGF-β1-induced A549 cells treated with NEN (Figure 4E and Supplementary Figure S2E). Here, TGFB1 is linked to idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis.