The vitamin D receptor (VDR) exists in bronchial epithelial cells and is an important cause of pulmonary fibrosis partly because vitamin D deficiency can regulate TGF-β signalling by suppressing phosphorylated Smad-2/3 and activating the renin-angiotensin system (RAS) activity (Li et al., 2004; Adav et al., 2011; Zerr et al., 2015; Shi et al., 2017; Park et al., 2018; Tzilas et al., 2019). Here, TGFB1 is linked to vitamin D deficiency.