TNF and infection: Following infection, a rapid systemic immune response is mounted against SARS-CoV-2, characterized by increased serum concentrations of chemokines and pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin (IL)-6 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF), and the appearance of activated monocytes, followed by SARS-CoV-2-specific immunoglobulin M (IgM), IgA, and IgG antibodies and interferon-γ-producing T cells2–7.