AKT1 and osteoporosis: Zhang et al. (2012) showed that TSG (0.1, 1, 10 μM) pretreatment for 24 h protected against H2O2-induced dysfunction and oxidative stress in osteoblastic MC3T3-E1 cells. Its protective effect is mainly mediated by inhibiting the release of bone resorption mediators and oxidative damage to cells (Zhang et al., 2012). Similarly, in MC3T3-E1 cells and bone tissue of BALB/c mouse model, TSG may also achieve preventive and protective effects against osteoporosis via PI3K/AKT, Wnt/FoxO3a, immune system and chemokine signaling pathway (Zhang et al., 2018a; Fan et al., 2018b).