INS and acute kidney injury: From the large amount of prospective data on surgical patients, the identifiable risk factors for AKI are age ≥56 years, male sex, active congestive heart failure, ascites, hypertension, preoperative creatinine >106 mol/L, diabetes mellitus (controlled by oral medications or insulin injections) (19–24), and patients with six or more risk factors have an increased incidence and hazard ratio of AKI (25).