TNF and acute respiratory distress syndrome: ALI/ARDS induced by COVID-19 overproduces early response proinflammatory cytokines TNF-α, interleukin (IL)-6, and IL-1β, which results in cytokine storm, and then leads to vascular hyperpermeability, multiorgan failure, high cytokine concentrations unabated over time, and eventually death (England et al., 2021).