CCL2 and infection: During viral replication, SARS-CoV-2 induces the death of infected cells, increases pyroptosis in epithelial cells, IL-1R induces proinflammatory cytokines (IL-6, IFN-γ, MCP-1/CCL2, MIP-1α/CCL3, MIP-1β/CCL4, and IP-10/CXCL) secretion, which in turn recruit T cells and activated macrophages to the infection site.