TNF and infection: In this case, EVs containing virus particles and exosomal proteins activate multiple molecules, initiate a productive infection of CD4+ T cells, and upregulate the expression of proinflammatory cytokines, such as interferon (IFN)-γ, tumor necrosis factor (TNF), interleukin (IL)-1β, and CCL5 (Nguyen et al., 2003; Booth et al., 2006; Wiley and Gummuluru, 2006; Izquierdo-Useros et al., 2009; Kulkarni and Prasad, 2017).