TNF and inflammatory bowel disease: Moreover, numerous pro-inflammatory cytokines implicated in IBD such as IFN-γ, TNF-α, and interleukin (IL)-1β can induce TJ protein endocytosis through a Rho-ROCK-MLCK-MLC mediated contraction of the peri-junctional actomyosin ring [68,69,70] (Fig. 1).