Their studies have utilized fetal adrenal demedullation, pharmaceutical adrenergic blockade, and direct norepinephrine infusions to demonstrate that elevated circulating catecholamines are the primary inhibitors of insulin secretion in IUGR fetal sheep (Leos et al., 2010; Yates et al., 2012b; Macko et al., 2013, 2016; Chen et al., 2014, 2017). Here, INS is linked to fetal growth restriction.