TNF and infection: In contrast, chronic CS exposure (>2 weeks) results in exaggerated cytokine responses (TNF-α, IFN-y, IL-6, IL-12, IL-23, IL-1, IL-5, IL-10, KC, MIP-1a, IL-17, IL-1B) [36,37,40,41,54] with infection compared to non-smoking infected controls.