TNF and diabetes mellitus: Growth factors and inflammatory and angiogenic cytokines, such as IL-1β, IL-6, and VEGF in aqueous humor [35,36], transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) in aqueous humor [37] and serum [38], and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) in aqueous humor [39,40] and vitreous [41], have been significantly upregulated in diabetes and are associated with DR.