TNF and Hypercalcemia: Stimulated by IFN-γ, tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α, IL1 and IL2), macrophages from sarcoid granulomas, can spontaneously release 1,25-dihydroxy vitamin D, further boosting calcium resorption from the gastrointestinal tract and bone, and causing hypercalcemia and hypercalciuria [47].