Figure 2B illustrates the IFN signaling pathway determined by IPA. Notably, in this pathway all of the DM-DE genes are downstream, and none were identified as upstream signaling molecules. IPA also identified 39 upstream regulators (|Z-score| ≥ 2) of the DM-DE genes that showed differential expression between SLE cases and controls in whole blood (Figure 2C). Here, IFNA1 is linked to systemic lupus erythematosus.