This was consistent with other studies demonstrating the increased expression of antiviral elements such as MDA-5, IFN-β and IFN-λ1, by bronchial epithelial cells from COPD patient stimulated by rhinovirus or RSV [31,32] and leading to an increased viral burden in mice that, in turn, might be responsible for the increased anti-viral response [33]. Here, IFNB1 is linked to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.