TNF and chronic kidney disease: These in vitro data were confirmed by the in vivo data showing that AST-120 and the administration of rapamycin suppressed the decreased expression of E-cadherin, elevated levels of α-SMA and COL1A1, and the increased expression of inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α and IL-6) in renal tissues, as observed in CKD model mice without affecting renal function.