Comparative analysis revealed that the expression of fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 (FGFR2; P = 0.017), serpin family E member 1 (SERPINE1; P = 0.019), transforming growth factor beta receptor 1 (TGFBR1; P = 0.038) and vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGFA; P = 0.033) was significantly greater in GDM-hAMSCs than in NGT-hAMSCs (Fig. 2a), which was also confirmed at the protein level by western blotting (Fig. 2b). Here, TGFBR1 is linked to gestational diabetes.